Casa · C2 Mastery · Lesson 8 of 20 · Step 1

Philosophy of Language

Performative verbs and speech acts

Understand and produce performative utterances
Distinguish between locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts
Use performative verbs in formal and institutional contexts
Analyse how language itself constitutes action

Words · tap a card to see it used

Grammar

Performative verbs and speech acts (I hereby declare, I undertake to)

Performative verbs are unique in that uttering them constitutes the action they describe. "I promise" is itself the promise; "I apologise" is itself the apology. In formal and institutional contexts, these are often strengthened with "hereby" (I hereby declare, I hereby resign). Key performative verb categories: commissives (promise, guarantee, undertake, pledge), directives (request, order, advise, urge), declaratives (declare, pronounce, sentence, christen), expressives (apologise, congratulate, thank, welcome).

I hereby resign from my position, effective immediately.

I undertake to fulfil all obligations set forth in this agreement.

I pronounce this court adjourned until further notice.

We pledge to uphold the principles enshrined in this charter.

Exercises · type, then check

1. Identify the type of speech act in each utterance.

1. "I hereby sentence the defendant to ten years' imprisonment." — This is a:

2. "I promise to return the book by Tuesday." — This is a:

3. "I advise you to seek legal counsel before proceeding." — This is a:

4. "I sincerely apologise for the inconvenience caused." — This is a:

5. "I christen this vessel the HMS Discovery." — This is a:

2. Complete each sentence with the appropriate performative verb: resign, undertake, pronounce, pledge, acknowledge.

1.I hereby from the Board of Directors.

2.We to allocate no less than 2% of GDP to defence.

3.I you husband and wife.

4.The organisation to comply with all applicable regulations.

5.We that errors were made in the handling of this matter.

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Reading

When Saying Is Doing

The philosopher J.L. Austin, in his landmark 1962 work How to Do Things with Words, drew attention to a class of utterances that had been largely overlooked by traditional philosophy of language: those in which saying something is doing something. When a judge says "I sentence you to five years," or a monarch declares "I name this ship," or a couple at the altar says "I do," the utterance does not describe a pre-existing state of affairs — it brings one into being. Austin termed these "performatives," distinguishing them from "constatives" (statements that describe the world and can be true or false). A performative cannot be true or false; it can only succeed or fail. And its success depends on what Austin called "felicity conditions": the speaker must have the requisite authority, the circumstances must be appropriate, and the correct procedures must be followed. A random stranger cannot sentence you to prison; the words are the same, but the felicity conditions are unmet. Austin's insight — that language is not merely a tool for describing reality but a means of constituting it — has had profound implications for legal theory, gender studies, political philosophy, and our understanding of institutional power. Every time a committee chair declares "I call this meeting to order," the utterance creates the very social reality it appears merely to announce.

1. What is the distinction Austin draws between performatives and constatives?

2. Why can a random stranger not successfully "sentence" someone to prison, according to Austin's framework?

Speaking · say it out loud, with a partner or alone

1Think of three performative utterances you have made or witnessed recently. What felicity conditions were necessary for them to succeed? What would happen if those conditions were not met?

2Consider the statement "I apologise." Does merely saying these words constitute a genuine apology? Or does a sincere apology require something beyond the performative utterance — intention, remorse, a commitment to change? Where does Austin's framework reach its limits?

Writing

Write a short formal speech or declaration (100-120 words) that uses at least four different performative verbs. The context may be institutional, ceremonial, legal, or political.

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Finished?

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